Mitigating human-snow leopard conflict through community engagement is one of the major objectives of the snow leopard conservation action plan for Nepal (2017–2021) ( DNPWC, 2017). Furthermore, impacts of climate change have emerged as a primary threat to snow leopards their habitats are expected to shrink throughout their range ( Aryal et al., 2016 Li et al., 2016).
Another important factor influencing snow leopard poaching is the illegal trade of the body parts and pelts ( Hussain et al., 2003), which is also on the rise ( Li & Lu, 2014). One of the main stressors of snow leopard poaching was found to be retaliatory killing as a consequence of livestock depredation ( Maheshwari & Niraj, 2018). Livestock grazing in snow leopard habitat has been seen to be a serious conservation threat to this species ( Ghoshal et al., 2017 Khanal et al., 2018 Sharma, Bhatnagar & Mishra, 2015). Human-snow leopard conflict, especially related to livestock depredation, represents a major threat to snow leopards ( Li et al., 2013 Mijiddorj, Alexander & Samelius, 2018 Suryawanshi et al., 2013 Ud Din et al., 2017 Wegge, Shrestha & Flagstad, 2012). While there are several studies characterizing snow leopards, their habits and habitats, there is a need for more localized information to improve conservation management practices. Male snow leopards represent a greater threat to livestock than females ( Chetri, Odden & Wegge, 2017). Snow leopards co-exist with other Himalayan carnivores, such as red fox ( Vulpes vulpes), grey wolf ( Canis lupus), Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx) and dhole ( Cuonal pinus) ( Alexander et al., 2016a Bocci et al., 2017).
The primary prey targeted by snow leopards include wild species such as blue sheep ( Pseudois nayaur) and marmots ( Marmota caudate) as well as domesticated livestock such as yak ( Bos grunniens) and sheep ( Ovis spp.) ( Aryal et al., 2014 Weiskopf, Kachel & McCarthy, 2016). Nepal has extremely varying population density for example Langu valley has 10–12 animals per 100 km 2 and Manang has 5–7 animals per 100 km 2 ( DNPWC, 2017). In Qilianshan National Nature Reserve, China, the density of snow leopard is 3.31 individuals per 100 km 2 ( Alexander et al., 2015). The home range of this species is 124–207 km 2 ( Johansson et al., 2016) but estimated at 11–37 km 2 in Nepal’s Himalaya ( Jackson, 1996). The snow leopard ( Panthera uncia) is a wild carnivore native to 12 countries in central Asia (China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia) ( McCarthy et al., 2017). These identified attack zones should be managed both for snow leopard conservation and livestock protection in order to balance human livelihoods while protecting snow leopards and their habitats. Furthermore, snow leopards preferred to attack livestock near livestock shelters, far from human paths and at moderate distance from motor roads.
We identified 13.64 km 2 as risk zone for livestock depredation from snow leopards in the study area. Using Maximum Entropy (Ma圎nt) modeling, we found that distance to livestock sheds, distance to paths, aspect, and distance to roads were major contributing factors to the snow leopard’s attacks. A total of 235 km 2 was used to define livestock depredation risk zone during this study. We maintained at least a 100 m distance between attack locations to ensure that each attack location was unique, which resulted in 86 unique locations. We found 109 attack sites and visited all the sites for geo location purpose (GPS points of all unique sites were taken). Attack sites older than 3 years were removed from the survey. These sites were further validated by district forest office staffs to assess sources of bias. We conducted formal and informal stakeholder’s interviews to gather information related to livestock depredation with the aim to map the attack sites by the snow leopard. Every year, large number of livestock are killed by snow leopards in Nepal, leading to economic loss to local communities and making human-snow leopard conflict a major threat to snow leopard conservation. The snow leopard ( Panthera uncia) found in central Asia is classified as vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).